Wednesday, 18 May 2016

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (Foundation of computational Agent)

**SOME PHOTOS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE**



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#What is Artificial intelligence ??


Ans :-According to the father of Artificial Intelligence John McCarthy, it is “The science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs”. 

Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled robot, or a software think intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent humans think. 

AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks, and how humans learn , decide , and work while trying to solve a problem, and then using the outcomes of this study as a basis of developing intelligent software and systems.

#Philosophy of AI

Ans :- While exploiting the power of the computer systems, the curiosity of human, lead him to wonder, “Can a machine think and behave like humans do?”
 Thus, the development of AI started with the intention of creating similar intelligence in machines that we find and regard high in humans.




#Goals of Artificial Intelligence

Ans :- To Create Expert Systems , The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior , learn , demonstrate , explain , and advice its users.
 *To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines: Creating systems that understand, think, learn, and behave like humans.




#What Contributes to AI ?

Ans :- Artificial intelligence is a science and technology based on disciplines such as Computer Science , Biology , Psychology , Linguistics , Mathematics , and Engineering .
 A major thrust of AI is in the development of computer functions associated with human intelligence, such as reasoning , learning , and problem solving 



#What is AI Technique ?

Ans :- In the real world, the knowledge has some un welcomed properties :-
* Its volume is huge, next to unimaginable.
 * It is not well-organized or well-formatted. 
* It keeps changing constantly.

AI Technique is a manner to organize and use the knowledge efficiently in such a way that :

* It should be perceivable by the people who provide it .
It should be easily modifiable to correct errors .
It should be useful in many situations though it is incomplete or inaccurate .

AI techniques elevate the speed of execution of the complex program it is equipped with . 

#Application of AI

AI has been dominant in various fields such as: 

*Gaming :- AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess , poker , tic-tac -toe , etc., where machine can think of large number of possible positions based on heuristic knowledge.





Natural Language Processing :- It is possible to interact with the computer that understands natural language spoken by humans.

 Expert Systems :- There are some applications which integrate machine, software, and special information to impart reasoning and advising. They provide explanation and advice to the users.

Vision Systems :- These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual input on the computer. 
               
                      For example ..

 * A spying aeroplane takes photographs which are used to figure out spatial information or map of the areas.

 * Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.

 *police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal with the stored portrait made by forensic artist.


Speech Recognition :- Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and comprehending the language in terms of sentences and their meanings while a human talks to it. It can handle different accents, slang words, noise in the background, change in human’s noise due to cold, etc.

Handwriting Recognition :- The handwriting recognition software reads the text written on paper by a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can recognize the shapes of the letters and convert it into editable text.

* Intelligent Robots :- Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human.
They have sensors to detect physical data from the real world such as light, heat, temperature, movement, sound, bump, and pressure.

They have efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge memory, to exhibit intelligence.

In addition, they are capable of learning from their mistakes and they can adapt to the new environment.

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#History Of AI

     Here is the history of AI during 20th century : 

* 1923  Karel capek"s play named “Rossum's Universal Robots” (RUR) opens in London, first use of the word "robot" in English. 

* 1943  Foundations for neural networks laid. 

1945  Isaac Asimov, a Columbia University alumni, coined the term Robotics.

* 1950  Alan Turing introduced Turing Test for evaluation of intelligence and published Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Claude Shannon published Detailed Analysis of Chess Playing as a search. 

1956  John McCarthy coined the term Artificial Intelligence. Demonstration of the first running AI program at Carnegie Mellon University.

1958  John McCarthy invents LISP programming language for AI.

* 1964  Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT showed that computers can understand natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems correctly.

1965  Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT built ELIZA, an interactive problem that carries on a dialogue in English. 

1969  Scientists at Stanford Research Institute Developed Shakey, a robot, equipped with locomotion, perception, and problem solving.

* 1973  The Assembly Robotics group at Edinburgh University built Freddy, the Famous Scottish Robot, capable of using vision to locate and assemble models. 

1979 The first computer-controlled autonomous vehicle, Stanford Cart, was built. 

1985  Harold Cohen created and demonstrated the drawing program, Aaron. 

1990

             Major advances in all areas of AI :

* Significant demonstrations in machine learning 
* Case-based reasoning
* Multi-agent planning
* Scheduling 
*Data mining, Web Crawler
*natural language understanding and translation 
* Vision, Virtual Reality
* Games 

* 1997  The Deep Blue Chess Program beats the then world chess champion, Garry Kasparov.

* 2000 Interactive robot pets become commercially available. MIT displays Kismet, a robot with a face that expresses emotions. The robot Nomad explores remote regions of Antarctica and locates meteorites

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#Human intelligence vs Artificial Intelligence



  
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Unix Command

**Basic Unix Command**




                  






  **Architecture of Unix**


                   
                








      
**Unix-command**

**Index of Commands**


cat - Display or concatenate files

cd - change directory

chmod -  change the permissions on a file or directory


CP - copy a file

date - display the current date and time

diff - display differences between text files

file - determine the type of a file

find - find files of a specified name or type

ftp - file transfer program

grep - searches files for a specified string or expression

gzip - compress a file

help - display information about bash builtin commands

info - read online documentation

kill - kill a process


lpr - print out a file

ls - list names of files in a directory

man - display an on-line manual page

mkdir - make a directory


more - scan through a text file page by page

mv - move or rename files or directories

nice - change the priority at which a job is being run

passwd - change your password

ps list processes

pwd - display the name of your current directory

quota - disk quota and usage

rm - remove files or directories

rmdir remove a directory

sort - sort and collate lines

ssh - secure remote access

tar - create and use archives of files







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#cat - display or concatenate files


cat
 takes a copy of a file and sends it to the standard output (i.e. to be displayed on your terminal, unless redirected elsewhere), so it is generally used either to read files, or to string together copies of several files, writing the output to a new file.
cat ex

displays the contents of the file ex.

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#cd - change directory


cd
 is used to change from one directory to another.
cd dir1

changes directory so that dir1 is your new current directory. dir1 may be either the full pathname of the directory, or its pathname relative to the current directory.
cd

changes directory to your home directory.
cd ..

moves to the parent directory of your current directory.

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Tuesday, 17 May 2016

Basics Of Operating System

Q1:- What is operating System ??

Ans :- An operating system (OS) is software , which makes a computer to actually work... It is the Software that enables All the programs we use..The operating system organises and control the Hardware . operating system acts as an interface between the Application programs and the machine Hardware.



#Examples of popular desktop operating systems are windows , linux , unix  and mobile operating systems include Android and iOS








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#Common Features Of Operating System
1) process management
               2) Memory management             
3) File System               
4) Device Drivers          
5) Networking               
6) Security                     
7) Interrupts                  

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*Types of operating systems
  • A)Single- and multi-tasking
  • B)Single- and multi-user
  • C)Distributed
  • D)Templated
  • E)Embedded
  • F)Real-time
  • G)Library

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Q2 :- Explain the concept of mainframes ??
    Ans :- Mainframe computers are computers used primarily by large organizations for critical applications, bulk data processing such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and transaction processing.


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Q3 :- What is BIOS ?                     
Ans :- A BIOS is software that is put on computers. This allows the user to configure the input and output of a computer. A BIOS is also known as firmware.


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  Q4:- Explain the concept of the batched operating systems?
Ans :- In batched operating system the users gives their jobs to the operator who sorts the programs according to their requirements and executes them. This is time consuming but makes the CPU busy all the time.

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Q5:-Explain the concept of the multi-programmed operating systems?
Ans :-A multi-programmed operating systems can execute a number of programs concurrently. The operating system fetches a group of programs from the job-pool in the secondary storage which contains all the programs to be executed, and places them in the main memory. This process is called job scheduling. Then it chooses a program from the ready queue and gives them to CPU to execute. When a executing program needs some I/O operation then the operating system fetches another program and hands it to the CPU for execution, thus keeping the CPU busy all the time.

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Q6:-Define MULTICS?
Ans:-MULTICS (Multiplexed information and computing services) operating system was developed from 1965-1970 at Massachusetts institute of technology as a computing utility. Many of the ideas used in MULTICS were subsequently used in UNIX.

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Q7 :- What are system calls?
Ans:-System calls provide the interface between a process and the operating system. System calls for modern Microsoft windows platforms are part of the win32 API, which is available for all the compilers written for Microsoft windows.

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